Ilkhanid Dynasty: Mongol Rule in Iran (1256–1335)

Who were the Ilkhanids?

The Ilkhanid dynasty was the branch of the Mongol imperial family that ruled Iran, Iraq, the South Caucasus and much of Anatolia from the 1250s until the death of Abu Sa‘id in 1335. Its founder, Hulagu, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, was sent west by his brother, the Great Khan Möngke. The title il-khan is usually understood to mean a khan subordinate to the Great Khan, a formal deference that faded as the Mongol empire split into rival states.

Hulagu’s campaign was brutal. In 1256 most Nizari Ismaili strongholds, including Alamut, surrendered, and in 1258 his army sacked Baghdad and executed al-Musta‘sim, the last Abbasid caliph to rule from Baghdad. A Mongol force was then defeated by the Mamluks at Ain Jalut in 1260, fixing a long frontier along the Euphrates.

Ilkhanid achievements: science, history and architecture

Mongol rulers governed through Persian administrators such as the Juvayni brothers, and their courts became meeting points for Iranian, Chinese and Central Asian knowledge. Hulagu funded Nasir al-Din Tusi’s observatory at Maragheh, which produced the Zij-i Ilkhani astronomical tables. After Ghazan Khan converted to Islam in 1295, he and his vizier Rashid al-Din pursued fiscal and administrative reforms, and Rashid al-Din compiled the Jami‘ al-Tawarikh, often called the first world history. Under Öljeitü, the new capital of Soltaniyeh received one of the largest brick domes in the world.

Decline and legacy

The conquest caused heavy loss of life and lasting damage to irrigation in some regions, although medieval casualty figures are not reliable and recovery varied from place to place. When Abu Sa‘id died without an heir in 1335, the state broke into regional powers such as the Jalayirids, Chupanids, Injuids, Muzaffarids and Sarbadars. Its legacy includes a Persian-speaking court culture open to wide Eurasian contacts, Tabriz as a major capital, and a renewed sense of Iran as a distinct political space.

Timeline of events

• 1256 CE · Ilkhanid Dynasty Established

  Hulagu establishes the Ilkhanid dynasty ruling Iran and much of the Middle East. Despite Mongol origin, the dynasty gradually adopts Persian culture and converts to Islam. (Tabriz) View on map

• 1256 CE · Fall of Alamut Castle

  Hulagu's forces capture and destroy the Ismaili fortress of Alamut, ending the Nizari Ismaili state after 166 years. Much of the famous Alamut library is burned. (Alamut Castle) View on map

• 1256 CE · The Library of Alamut

  Alamut fortress houses one of the great libraries of the medieval world, containing rare manuscripts on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and Ismaili theology. When Hulagu's Mongols destroy the fortress in 1256, the historian Juvayni is allowed to salvage some volumes, but most of the library is lost forever — one of history's great intellectual tragedies. (Alamut) View on map

• 1258 CE · Saadi of Shiraz

  Sheikh Saadi writes the Golestan and Bustan, masterpieces of Persian prose and poetry. His verse 'Children of Adam' adorns the UN headquarters. (Shiraz) View on map

• 1258 CE · Hulagu Destroys Baghdad

  Hulagu Khan sacks Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate. The Tigris runs black with ink from destroyed libraries. However, Hulagu patronizes Iranian culture and science. (Baghdad) View on map

• 1259 CE · Nasir al-Din Tusi and Maragheh Observatory

  Nasir al-Din Tusi, polymath and astronomer, persuades Hulagu to build the Maragheh Observatory — the most advanced in the world. His planetary models later influence Copernicus. (Maragheh) View on map

• 1260 CE · Juvayni's History of the World Conqueror

  ʿAta-Malek Juvayni came from a family of Khorasani secretaries who had served the Seljuks and the Khwarazmshahs, and he entered Mongol service as a young man. He began his Tarikh-e Jahangoshay ("History of the World Conqueror") at the Mongol capital Qaraqorum in 1252 and finished it in 1260, the year after Hulagu made him governor of Baghdad. It is one of the earliest major Persian histories of Chinggis Khan and his successors, written with first-hand access to the Mongol administration; historians debate how far its generally accommodating tone toward Mongol rule reflects his own view or the limits of his position. (Baghdad) View on map

• 1260 CE · Battle of Ain Jalut

  The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt inflicts the first decisive defeat on the Mongol army at Ain Jalut in Palestine, halting their westward expansion. This battle is considered a turning point in world history, as it prevented the Mongol conquest of Egypt and North Africa and preserved the heartland of Islamic civilization. (Ain Jalut, Palestine) View on map

• 1265 CE · Tusi's Tajrid and Twelver Shiʿi Theology

  Nasir al-Din Tusi's Tajrid al-eʿteqad, a concise summary of theology written in his later years, became a foundational text of rationalist Twelver Shiʿi kalam. His student al-ʿAllama al-Hilli wrote an influential commentary on it, and Shiʿi and Sunni scholars kept commenting on it for centuries. Tusi had earlier spent decades under Nizari Ismaili patronage before joining Hulagu, and historians debate whether his shifting affiliations reflect changes of conviction or pragmatic accommodation; this theological legacy is separate from his astronomy at Maragheh. (Maragheh) View on map

• 1281 CE · Qutb al-Din Shirazi and Maragheh Astronomy

  Qutb al-Din Shirazi (1236–1311), a physician and astronomer from Shiraz, studied under Nasir al-Din Tusi at the Maragheh observatory. In Nehayat al-edrak (1281) and al-Tohfa al-shahiya (1285) he refined the non-Ptolemaic planetary models developed in Tusi's circle. He later worked in Anatolia and Tabriz, and his student Kamal al-Din Farisi went on to explain the formation of the rainbow. (Maragheh) View on map

• 1295 CE · Ghazan Khan's Reforms

  Ghazan Khan converts to Islam and implements sweeping administrative, fiscal, and agricultural reforms, revitalizing Iran under Ilkhanid rule. (Tabriz) View on map

• 1302 CE · Dome of Soltaniyeh

  Öljaitü (Muhammad Khodabandeh) builds the massive Dome of Soltaniyeh, the largest brick dome ever constructed and one of the largest domes in the world. The octagonal mausoleum, standing 50 meters high, showcases the pinnacle of Ilkhanid architecture and engineering. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. (Soltaniyeh, Iran) View on map

• 1307 CE · Rashid al-Din's Jami al-Tawarikh

  Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Iranian Jewish-origin vizier, compiles the Jami al-Tawarikh, the first true world history covering China, India, Europe, and the Islamic world. (Tabriz) View on map

• 1309 CE · Rabʿ-e Rashidi, the Vizier's Quarter in Tabriz

  Rashid al-Din Fazlallah, vizier to the Ilkhans and author of the Jameʿ al-tawarikh, endowed the Rabʿ-e Rashidi, a walled quarter on the edge of Tabriz; its endowment deed is dated 9 August 1309. Around his tomb it housed a hospice for visitors, a Sufi lodge, a hospital whose physician also taught, a library and a scriptorium where copies of his works were made each year. Plundered after his execution in 1318 and now almost entirely destroyed, the quarter is reconstructed mainly from the surviving deed and from excavation. (Tabriz) View on map

• 1309 CE · Kamal al-Din al-Farisi: Optics Pioneer

  Kamal al-Din al-Farisi, Iranian scientist working in the Maragheh observatory tradition, correctly explains the rainbow through refraction and reflection of light inside water droplets — centuries before Newton. His work built on Ibn al-Haytham's optics. (Tabriz) View on map

• 1310 CE · Oljeitu Converts to Shia Islam

  Ilkhanid ruler Oljeitu (Muhammad Khodabandeh) converts to Twelver Shia Islam, making it the state religion of Iran for the first time. He builds the magnificent tomb of Soltaniyeh — the largest brick dome ever constructed — as a potential resting place for the remains of Imam Ali and Imam Husayn. (Soltaniyeh, Iran) View on map

• 1335 CE · The Great Mongol Shahnameh

  The Great Mongol Shahnameh, also called the Demotte Shahnameh, was made for the Ilkhanid court at Tabriz around the 1330s. Its large, emotionally charged paintings combine Persian pictorial traditions with conventions drawn from Chinese art, showing how Ferdowsi's epic was taken up by Iran's Mongol rulers. In the early 20th century the dealer Georges Demotte broke the manuscript apart and sold its pages separately; the surviving paintings are now dispersed among museums. (Tabriz) View on map

Frequently asked questions

What does Ilkhanate mean?

Il-khan is generally read as subordinate khan, signalling that Hulagu and his heirs formally acknowledged the Great Khan in Mongolia and later China. In practice the Ilkhans ruled independently.

When did the Ilkhanate end?

Unified Ilkhanid rule effectively ended with the death of Abu Sa‘id in 1335. Rival commanders then raised puppet khans while regional dynasties divided Iran until Timur’s conquests in the 1380s.

Key events on the map

• 1256 CE · Ilkhanid Dynasty Established
• 1259 CE · Nasir al-Din Tusi and Maragheh Observatory
• 1295 CE · Ghazan Khan's Reforms
• 1302 CE · Dome of Soltaniyeh

Guided storylines

• Destruction and Uneven Recovery: Mongol Iran